Introduction to Psychology: Key Psychologists and Theories

Introduction to Psychology: Key Psychologists and Theories Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud explored the human mind more thoroughly than any other who became before him. And His is known as the Father of Psychology. His contribution to psychology are big. In 20th century, Sigmund Freud is the one of the most influential people. Besides his contribution to psychology, people are also influenced on his art and literature and even the way they bring out their children. Words like neurotic, denial, Freudian Slip, libido, anal(personality) and cathartic that used by people now’s a day was introduced by Sigmund Freud. Besides that , Sigmund Freud also known as Father of psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis is a treating method for mental illness and. Besides, psychoanalysis can also known as a theory to get know of human behaviour. During the process of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud encourage his client to sit on his couch and talk something related to their symptoms and what was in their in their mind. The Case of Anna O Bertha Pappenheim as known as Anna O. Sigmund Freud has met his turning point in this cases of Anna O. Psychology today is also influenced by the case of Anna O. Anna is a people who suffered from hysteria. A person who suffered from hysteria will exhibits paralysis, convulse, hallucinate and loss of speech without apparent physical causes. Josef Breuer the doctor of Anna and also the friend of Sigmund Freud, the one who succeed in treating anna by helping her to recall her memories of traumatic events. Josef has discussed this case with Freud and out of these discussion came of germ of an idea that Freud was to pursue to his life. In [Studies in Hysteria, 1895 Freud] proposed that physical symptoms are often the surface manifestations of deeply repressed conflicts. Freud has advancing on explanation of a particular illness and also proposing a revolutionary new theory of human psyche itself. This theory shows a ‘bit by bit’ as a result of Freud’s clinical investi gations and it led him to propose that there were at least 3 levels to the mind. The Psyche Freud (1923) later developed a more structural model of the mind comprising the entities id, ego and superego (what Freud called â€Å"the psychic apparatus†). These are hypothetical conceptualizations of important mental functions. The id operated as unconscious level according to pleasure level. These id contains two biological instincts or dives. And Freud called it as Eros and Thanatos. Eros, or life instinct, helps the individual to survive; it directs life-sustaining activities such as respiration, eating and sex (Freud, 1925). In contrast, Thanatos or death instinct, is viewed as a set of destructive forces present in all human beings (Freud, 1920). Dream Analysis (Freud, S. (1900). The interpretation of dreams) considered dreams to be the royal road to the unconscious as it is in dreams that the egos defenses are lowered so that some of the repressed material comes through to awareness, albeit in distorted form. Dream Analysis involves the manifest content into trustful content. Understand the step various distorting will helps to understand the latent meaning of dream. Condensation is a process of combination of two or more idea/images into one. A dream about a car might be condensation of worries about the security of car. When we transform something or someone we really concern about to someone else is where Displacement take place. For example, there are a patient of Freud who hated Freud’s sister in law and always used to refer to her as a dog and this patient dreamed of killing a dog. Sigmund Freud interpreting this as represent the wish of killing of his sister in law. When the unconscious mind strings together wish-fulfilling images in a logical order of events further obscuring the latent content will causes Second Elaboration. WILLIAM JAMES (1842-1910) William James, one of the famous contributor for us in psychology. He born in January 11, 1842 in New York City. His father , Henry James Sr who is very interested in philosophy and theology eager to provide a good study environment to his children. William James and his brothers had gone to Europe frequently. William James and his brother had attended a lot of famous school and immersed with culture and art. At the end William James became one of the important psychologist. While his brother Henry James became on of the famous author. Before William James started his study in Harvard, he told his father what he actually interested in. In the earlier state William wanted to be a painter. After he persisted his father, Henry promised his son to study painting. However, William James gave up his ambition to became a painter after studying few years with the artist William Morris Hunt and started his new life in Harvard with Chemistry. Suffering from a lot of stress, he continued his st udy in France and Germany.William James had a new friend, name Hermann von Helmholtz who focused on illusion.This was the time where William James became gradually interested in psychology. William James got his M.D. from Harvard and started teaching psychology at Harvard. In 1890 William James had his first book which is ‘The Principle Of Psychology’ followed by ‘Will To Believe’ and ‘Pragmatism’. (James, W. (1890). The Principles of Psychology. New York: Henry Holt and Co.; James, W. (1902)) William James had came out with some theory like Functionalism and James-Lange Theory of Emotion. He believed that the mind has the function of helping us adapt to the environment and human behavior was influenced by the evolution. Human acquire their behavior distinguish them from others species. This approach is called functionalism and is focus on adaptive purpose. For example, Darwin’s finches illustrated the interaction between genes and adaptation to the environment. The different species originated from common genes but their beak change in time for adaption in different places and different food supply. Another theory is James-Lange Theory of Emotion. William James had a same thinking as Carl Georg Lange. Carl Georg Lange (December 4, 1834 – May 29, 1900) was a Danish physician who made contributions to the fields of neurology,psychiatry, and psychology. At the same time , Carl Lange was also writting about emotion similar to William James. Based on this theory, an external stimulus cause psychological effect. Our reaction based on how we interpret those physical reactions. For examaple, when we see a lion suddenly appear in front of us, our heart bit will increase and we will breath faster, then we will start being affraid. Introduction of Wilhelm Wundt Wilhelm Wundt, 1832-1920. Wundt is credited with making psychology an independent science, separate from philosophy. Wundt original training was in medicine, but he became deeply interested in psychology. In his laboratory, Wundt investigated how sensations, images, and feelings combine to build personal experience. Wilhelm Wundt is commonly identified as the father of psychology. It is because Wundt’s formation of the world’s first experimental psychology lab is noted as the official head of psychology as a clearly perceptible science. Wundt take psychology from philosophy and biology to make it a field of study. Wilhelm Wundt granted a degree in medicine from the University of Heidelberg. In 1864, Wundt became an associate professor and independent tutor at the University of Heidelberg, and was promoted in 1871. Wundt had published the Principles of Physiological Psychology (1874), which help to establish experimental procedures psychological research. Wundt founded what is considered to be the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879. He used the technique known as introspection to probe the perceptual processed of his experimental subjects.His approach was called structuralism as he focused on the elements or structure of mental processes. Structuralism Structuralism refers to a theory of consciousness. Structuralism describes the structures that compose the mind. Wundt believed that psychology was the science of intentional experience and professional observers could precisely describe thoughts, feelings, and emotions through introspection. Contributions to Psychology: Wilhelm Wundt is known for establish the first psychology lab in Liepzig (Germany) generally titled as the beginning of psychology as a field of social science divide from philosophy and physiology. In addition, Wundt had published the psychology journal Philosophical Studies. Wundt had also his students who become successful psychologists. For example, Edward Titchener, Hugo Munsterberg, G. Stanley Hall, James McKeen Cattell, Charles Spearman, Charles Judd. Contributions to psychology Margaret Washburn was the first woman to be awarded a Ph.D. in psychology, in 1894. Over the next 15 years many woman followed her pioneering lead. Nowadays, more than half of the members of the APA are woman and nearly 75 percent of college graduates in psychology have been women. Obviously, psychology has become fully open to both men and women (Hyde, 2004). Being a psychologist, Washburn published in the areas of perception and imagery. She also developed a motor theory of consciousness, and she is still best known for her work in comparative psychology, (Goodwin, 2008, p. 200). The book The Animal Mind which was published in 1908 focused on research that used scientific data. This work was focused on the cognitive processes of perception, attention, and consciousness, as the behaviors of various species exhibited, (Goodwin, 2008). This book later became a textbook on comparative psychology. Now it is still in circulation. In 1916 Margaret wrote her another book, Movement and mental imagery. This book focused on movement, existing as the ultimate fact of science, and mental imagery, the world of imaginary objects, (Washburn, 1916). In the introduction to the book Movement and Mental imagery Washburn writes â€Å" movements which an animal makes are belong to the world of external observation; they have direction, they have velocity and they are complex movements. An investigator like Professor Loeb can entertain the confident hope that science will someday be able to show their relations to the movements of lifeless things,† (Washburn, 1916, para.4). She wowed an all men’s Wittenberg seminar with her theory on dualistic motor functioning in 1927. Recognition was being received by her from the science circles that draw women out previously. This positive outlook in science was a contribution to help her became the president of the American Psychological Association (1922). She was the seco nd woman to hold this title. Later she was appointed a membership in the National Academy of Science, again in 1931. She was also the second woman to do so. So the conclusion is, Margaret Floy Washburn was truly a dynamo of psychology. She loved science and the study of the mind with such a passion. This passion made her to accomplish much in her life span. Her career lasted from 1894-1937. Financial status and skin color of Margaret allowed her in doors of experimental psychological word mainly shut to women and people of color. Margaret died from stroke in Poughkeepsie, New York, on October 29, 1939. The psychological world is indebted to her hard work, her dedication, and her contributions to psychology. She is a good contributor of psychology. She will continue to inspire women and men interested in the science of psychology. Developments of the Construction Industry: Economic Analysis Developments of the Construction Industry: Economic Analysis INTRODUCTION: The construction Industry has been hailed as the back-bone of many economies, in part or as a whole. It adds in large parts to the GDP of a nation and as a whole enables trade and encourages growth. It currently contributes about one- tenth (1/10) of the worlds GDP. The total global AEC (Architecture, Engineering and Construction) market is about $7.2 trillion and expected to grow to $12 trillion by 2020 (Global Construction 2020. http://www.globalconstruction2020.com/). The Construction industry provides employment for about 7% of the total global employed work force. It also accounts for being the largest energy consuming sector globally where it is recorded to consume about 2/5th of the total consumed energy worldwide and it is responsible for about half the total resources used worldwide. (http://www.economywatch.com/world-industries/construction/trends.html#sthash.8UZZiQEb.dpuf) This technical report examines the sum and a specific part of the industry. Looking at factors; Political, Economic, Social, Technological, environmental and social that may affect the industrys growth and the strategic analysis employed by businesses in this industry. This would be done using the PEST analysis and Porters Five Force model when researching the Industry as a whole and the SWOT and Portfolio Analysis in researching a specific part. Being a multi-trillion global industry, it remains an attractive competitive industry where managers must strategically manage their individual companies as it is a project centred industry characterized by short-term partnering between a range of teams with varying levels of Industry experience, information and communication technologies capability. To remain competitive, managers must ensure they have effective strategies to continue to win work for their project centred businesses. The CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY: What is the construction Industry? The business dictionary online defines this as; The Sector of national economy engaged in the preparation of land and construction, alteration, and repair of buildings, structures, and other real property. It is an industry known worldwide for operating on narrow profit margins (P. 51 Anthony E Henry. Understanding Strategic Management) and it constitutes one of the most important sectors in any countries national economy. It can be split into three broad categories: Architecture, Engineering and Construction; The construction of heavy and civil engineering which covers the construction of railway tracks, bridges, highways, tunnels , airport and other functional capital intensive ventures. The construction of real estate which covers both commercial and residential buildings. And, the construction of specialized items; pipelines, electrical equipment, decorative materials, and the likes. It is considered as being the worlds single largest industrial employer. Estimates of its size and importance vary from country to country. (http://www.cnbc.com/id/100419943/Research_and_Markets_Analyzing_the_European_Construction_Industry_2013) The construction industry like most other industries is affected by a nations financial crisis as government cuts in spending and other factors such as population growth, material costs, climate, urbanisation, globalization and technology can have their direct and indirect toll on the industry. pondering on our modern-day construction consumerism and deliberating the mismanagement of resources and the austere warnings heavily laced by speculation of the ever increasing unstable financial markets taking our world to the threshold of scarcity that analysts in the major resource departments; material, energy, finance and water have warned. In an age of depleting resources and a need to continue to create, the construction industry is facing many threats and has sought many methods to become more efficient and less resource consuming. With this sees a new area of job markets opening up in the construction industry. PEOPLE IN INDUSTRY: The construction industry currently employs; Architects, Engineers, Surveyors, Builders, Town Planners, Building inspectors, Project and Construction Managers Contractors (who employ; Electricians, Plumbers, joiners, crafts trades, etc.) However, with the need to be more efficient and streamlined, the construction industry has created new employment in the sustainability sector that deals with using less, working smart and taking responsibility for resources to decrease waste and increase production. With the advent of cutting edge technology used to greatly enhance precision and efficiency, the introduction of Building Information Model (BIM) sees a more efficient stream lined team enabling more specific designers and their design teams to work in a collaborative manner on one platform of information technology minimising error as well as cost. TRENDS: The trends that will continue to drive the industry in the coming years include global warming and new innovative materials to be used to achieve a more sustainable environment (Bjorn, 2009); it would also include population growth and urbanisation world-wide. The global construction industry has seen decline over the last six (6) years. However, there are many emerging markets and a global growth is expected looking up to 2020 through to 2050. With the introduction of BIM and a need for development, recorded fast growths have been in the Asian markets where China now holds the lead and Japan, once the emerging global construction leader has almost altogether halted. Africa has had big construction growths and constitutes one of the fastest growing emerging markets in the construction industry. Although, the vast majority of firms that operate there are international firms especially from the Chinese construction industry. The Middle East continues to grow and Eastern Europe and Latin America are expected to have continuous growth. Most of this growth is influenced by population growths, globalization and urbanization worldwide. Merco Press suggests the global construction industry contributes over 10% to the global GDP and predicts this will rise to about 13% of the global GDP by 2020. This will see a financial input of over $97 trillion up to 2020 with yearly increments of over 5% (global Construction Perspectives and Oxford Economics). Laing ORourke suggests the majority of the worlds population now lives in towns and cities, with the balance shifting from a rural existence largely in the last three years. By 2050, over 6.5 billion people will be urbanites, with the total world  population estimated to rise towards 11 billion in the same period. Thus, they are positioning themselves in the market to be able to cater to this big shift in global living THE CONSTRUCTION GROUPS: Strategic Analysis is; A theoretically informed understanding of the environment in which an organisation is operating, together with an understanding of the organisations interaction with its environment in order to improve organisational efficiency and effectiveness by increasing the organisations capacity to deploy and redeploy its resources intelligently. (http://www.cimaglobal.com/) There are many construction companies around the world. International construction firms are large multi-billion pounds firms that operate in several countries world-wide delivering construction solutions and growth. A number of the larger industry firms undertake construction work internationally however; majority of work is carried out by the local or national small and medium sized enterprises. The majority of international construction companies will have commenced with limited operation, normally involving one country. Those who experience initial success will be more likely to expand their businesses, eventually leading to growth by investing in other countries. Conversely, a lack of success is likely to encourage withdrawal back into the domestic market. (Howes and Tan, Strategic Management Applied to International Construction P 59) These companies to stay at the top of their markets would have strategically analysed their industry and would use results to try to stay ahead. This report would consider 2012s top 20 construction Groups world-wide focusing on number 1-Balfour Beatty and Number 20- the Mace Group. This report would cover the years running up to 2012 specifically looking between 2009 -2011. Clear changes are seen in the work that were bid for and carried out in a space of 2 years of an economic downturn. More significant market changes are seen with the Bottom two Laing ORourke and the Kier group. INDUSTRY ANALYSIS: PEST ANALYSIS OF THE INDUSTRY: PEST stands for; Political, Economic, Social and Technological. These are the Factors used in studying to gain an understanding on the factors that affect an industry. Using the PEST analysis on an industry gives insight on the environmental factors facing that industry. It can also be applied to individual companies, firms and businesses. (P)olitical Factors; The political factors affecting the construction industry are mostly new government changes, changes in legislation, documentation, new policies and permits that have to be obtained and submitted before, during and after the works and at various phases of the construction process to its official hand-over. Globally, it could be affected by unstable governments in emerging markets, law variations and business taxes. It could also cover things like sustainability, reduction of the carbon foot print in the construction industry, the remediation of brown land, the protection of national landmarks, ecology, and habitat. (E)conomic Factors; Price fluctuations of goods can have an impact on the industry. Government cuts, a recession, VAT rises, fluctuations and a decline in economic growth all can affect the construction industry. This can have knock-on effect when jobs have to be placed on hold which invariably costs the industry more losses. Also, a change in demand for services and a change with the financier of the construction bodies could all have an effect. Positively, a decrease in the stamp duty could signal a good sign for the residential construction industry. (S)ocial Factors; Various things affect the social aspect; a development is judged on its location, its proximity to services, the nature of the construction; materials used aesthetic appeal, functionality and safety. The perceived image of the constructing firm, provisions offered by the constructed space, age distribution, Population Growth, cultural and career provisions. (T)echnical / Technological Factors: The Construction industry is a very technical one. Technology changes happen rapidly and the advent of the use of BIM, has seen big changes in the way work is carried out. Techniques change, needs change, new building systems to meet with Zero carbon buildings, prefabricated materials, pre-mixed cement mixtures. The industry works, faster and smarter now. Many new buildings are put together like a puzzle piece. PORTERS FIVE FORCES; The Porters five forces is a framework used for diagnosing an industrys structure. Forces that erode long-term industry average profitability. This framework can be applied at industry, group or individual firm level. (Lecture notes Feb 2013) It breaks down the competitive rivalry within an industry focusing on; the threat of new entrants, the bargaining power of suppliers, the bargaining power of customers and the threat of substitutes. Competitive Rivalry within the Industry; (HIGH) With the down-turn in the economy, the major Construction firms have shown contrasting responses to the downturn in public sector construction work, amid warnings that public sector capital investment will drop by 24% by 2013/ 2014, three of the biggest firms increased their proportion of public sector work won. Balfour Beatty no 1 of the top 100 construction firms moves towards plans for acquisitions of major gas-fired stations. It also uses its US business Parsons Brinkerhoff to become an end-to-end provider for major clients such as SSE. (http://www.cnplus.co.uk/news/balfour-beatty-plans-acquisitions-for-major-gas-fired-stations-move/8643974.article?blocktitle=Top-StoriescontentID=7501) Many of the larger firms are expanding and diversifying their portfolios to stay at the top. Bidding in new categories and offering more. Brand identity gives an advantage in contract acquisition however; there is a level of fair play in that not all construction companies can carry out the same job specs. The small and medium enterprises lower down the construction firm ladder however have steep competition as they all go for the same projects and are bidding on the same levels. And everyone on that ladder competes against itself on; improving technology, continuous innovation and integration to optimise cost. The Threat of New Entrants; (LOW) The construction Industry is very capital intensive. The brand names in the construction industry are well known and well established, location for most of the top 100 construction firms is not an issue as they can easily absorb the costs of travel to win work and diversify their portfolios in other countries. Profitability in the construction industry relies heavily on the economies of scale. It does not offer much for consumers switching costs and retaliation from the top 100 would be an issue for a new smaller firm that does not have the heavy capital investments required. Regulatory approval and licensing is paramount in this industry and it comes with high operational costs. Smaller firms and businesses operate and do smaller jobs and contracts. They are sub-contracted from the larger construction firms and operate in the local markets. They also offer product and service hires which can prove profitable for them. With larger firms having the intensive capital required, they are able to bid lower than smaller firms and win jobs. Bargaining Power of Customers: (High) The Buyers are the clients and end users of the construction industry. They can be government bodies, a consortium, or high net- worth individuals. As most jobs are won through a tender / bid process, the consumer / customer has a fair amount of force here as they naturally have a say in who they would like to carry out their project usually based on best price for quality, portfolio, trust in brand, knowledge of brand and in some instances this can be decided by word-of-mouth. Firms need to keep a good name and work ethic to keep business, win repeat business and win new business from referrals. When dealing with residential property, the consumer has the option to also renovate or buy an already done house. So, they do have a fair amount of force. Bargaining power of Suppliers: (LOW) Supplies are many and products and services can be substituted. New products are constantly coming into the market and as the construction industry is a future forward one, it would move with the better global trends for goods and services. Most goods have a set non-negotiable price range across board which leaves the supplier with little or no force on the industry. Threat of Substitutes: (LOW) Products and services in the construction industry are as they are it is virtually impossible to substitute them. The rise of the Boat-home, the mobile-caravan homes, and holiday cabins are all short-term substitutes. Many other buildings and large civil construction services cannot be substituted. As explained by (Saidi, OBrien and Lytle, 2008), There is limited or no direct substitute for the industrys product, some services can be replaced with others within the industry such as the use of robots in place of human labour. Robotic system cut down labour requirements in a Japanese construction site by approximately 30%. It however does not completely substitute the need for human input. THE ORGANISATION: http://books.google.co.uk/books/about/A_Strategic_Analysis_of_the_Construction.html?id=hk_VT8JpClMC http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hk_VT8JpClMCpg=PA11lpg=PA11dq=how+do+i+strategically+analyse+the+construction+industrysource=blots=LF7UCRNx_Ksig=2P8J4vBhZuubow1Ui9bPP3nrbq0hl=ensa=Xei=POsvUfbwLImb1AXrkoDoAgved=0CDsQ6AEwAg http://www.amazon.co.uk/Strategic-Analysis-Construction-Industry-Emirates/dp/3836699206#reader_3836699206 http://www.cimaglobal.com/Documents/ImportedDocuments/cid_tg_strategic_analysis_tools_nov07.pdf.pdf http://www.economywatch.com/world-industries/construction/research.html#sthash.U3p84gQD.dpuf) http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/construction-industry.html#ixzz2N8qeZD8M Strategic Management Applied to International Construction By Rodney Howes, Joseph H. M. Tan Berge Bjorn, (2009) The Ecology of Building Materials. 2d Edition.Architectural Press (- See more at: http://www.economywatch.com/world-industries/construction/research.html#sthash.U3p84gQD.dpuf) LOOK AT (http://www.sloanvalve.com/Dec11_global_outlook.pdf) Intellectual Disability: Causes and Impacts Intellectual Disability: Causes and Impacts Outcome 1: Define Intellectual Disability TASK 1 1.1 Give 2 definitions of intellectual disability in accordance with a recognized source. Follow prescribed APA format when citing sources. Definition 1: Intellectual disability causes limitations in intellectual functioning as well as in adaptive behaviors that include many skills which is needed every day. The onset age is under 18. Source: FAQ on Intellectual Disability, American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, retrieved from: http://aaidd.org/intellectual-disability/definition/faqs-on-intellectual-disability Definition 2: Intellectual disability is a term used for when people has certain limitations in functioning mentally and in skills such as communicating, performing activities of daily living, and in his or her social behavior. Children with this ability may develop their skills (walking, talking, etc) at a delayed time as compared to normal. They may also have trouble with learning- it usually takes them a longer time to learn new skills. Source: National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities.(2005) Intellectual disability, retrieved from: http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly/pdf/parents_pdfs/IntellectualDisability.pdf 1.2 Using a definition of intellectual disability give 2 explanations of how this impacts on the persons adaptive skills: People with intellectual disability have experienced impairment in their ability to comprehend information. As a result, they have a hard time with reading comprehension, handling money, dealing with numbers as well as time. Because of their impaired social functioning, they have tendency not to get along and socially deal with others. They are not able to recognize the laws of society or have a few limited abilities to follow rules. Using a definition of intellectual disability give 2 explanations of how this impacts on the cognitive abilities: Persons suffering from intellectual disability have lack of the ability to explain why they do certain things or why certain things happen. This is due to their impaired intelligence. Learn and apply what is learnt- Intellectually disabled people have a hard time to gain new knowledge. It is difficult for them to process new information and understand new skills. Age of onset of intellectual disability There is no particular age to have start of the disability. But regarding to some research, it has been shown that it usually happen on the developmental period among 0-18 years old. Outcome 2: Describe the causes of intellectual disability TASK 2 2.1 Give 2 examples of causes of intellectual disability that occur before birth and describe two (2) main characteristics of the effects. Example 1: Genetic factors Source: sevencounties.org (2005-2014). Genetic Cause of Intellectual Disabilities, retrieved from: http://www.sevencounties.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=docid=10335cn=208 Main characteristics: Fragile X syndrome: Physical features of FXS patients include: large ears, long face, macroorchidism, infections in the ears, flat feet, high arched palate, fingers with double joints and hyper-flexible joints Prader-Willi Syndrome: People with Prader-Willi Syndrome have severe hypotonia. Therefore their sucking is poor in their early infancy. Example 2: Environmental hazards and toxins Source: sevencounties.org (2005-2014). The Many Causes of Intellectual Disabilities, Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and Environmental Exposure to Toxins, retrieved from: http://sevencounties.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=docid=10333cn=208 Main characteristics: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: During pregnancy people drink alcohol a lot which might cause fetal alcohol syndrome. People are born with a small head, flat face and nose bridge in the most common features. They tend to be hyperactive and have hard time in socializing. Spinal bifida: It is caused lack of folic acid. People with Spinal Bifida usually have such problems as mental and social. In addition, they have hard time with walking, going somewhere and latex allergy, obesity, skin breakdown, depression. 2.2 Give 2 examples of causes of intellectual disability that occur during or immediately following birth and describe 2 main characteristics of the effects. Example 1: Trauma Source: Merck Sharp and Dohme Corp. (2010-2013). The Merck Manual, Home Health Handbook, retrieved from: http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/childrens_health_issues/problems_in_newborns/birth_injury.html Main Characteristics: Head and brain injury: Swelling of the scalp and bruising may occur due to birth trauma. Bleeding between the periosteum and skull causes hematoma, usually in the parietal region and sometimes the occipital region. Nerve Injury: when forceps used to assist delivery puts much pressure on the facial nerve, weakness on one side of the face results. This injury becomes evident when the newborn baby cries and the face appears to be asymmetric. Example2: Premature birth and low birth weight. Source: UCSF Children’s Hospital at UCSF Medical Center. 2004. Intensive Care Nursery House Manual, retrieved from: http://www.ucsfbenioffchildrens.org/pdf/manuals/20_VLBW_ELBW.pdf Main Characteristics: Hypothermia: Low birth weight infants have a greater body surface area. Thus, a decrease stores of brown fat and glycogen which results to an inability to conserve or generate body heat. Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS): Respiratory problems due to a lack in surfactant and apnea of prematurity 2.3 Give 2 examples of causes of intellectual disability that occur during childhood years and describe the impact on the day-to-day support needs of the person. Example 1: Brain Tumor Source: PMC: US National Library of Medicine, National Institute of Health. January 2008. â€Å"Caring for the Brain Tumor Patient: Family caregiver burden and unmet needs.†, retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2600839/ Impact: Patients with brain tumor need various supports in their day to day lives. Psychosocial support is one of them. It is important for them to learn how to handle the stress of a chronic illness, as family members realize that their lives will be forever changed by the uncertainty that surrounds this diagnosis. It is therefore important for the support provider to make sure the patient and family understands the impact of this illness to them and provide them of ways on how to cope and possibly live a close to normal life. Also, for the caregivers, it is important that they are always prepared for the possibility of disease progression. Even though a patient is stable for a certain period of time, the caregiver will always feel the wear and tear of caring for this patient. Thus, it is important to make sure that caregivers are also taken cared of to ensure quality care. Example 2: Meningitis Source: Kelli de la Rocha (2014). Intellectual disability. NYU Langone medical center. retrieved from: http://pediatrics.med.nyu.edu/conditions-we-treat/conditions/intellectual-disability# Impact: Children with intellectual disability caused by meningitis can’t learn skills and any knowledge as fast as other children with same age. So supporters need to wait for their achievement with patient. And also they need to be aware of the risk that the children experience seizure, and then they should be trained for coping with them suffering seizure. Outcome 3: Describe conditions frequently associated with intellectual disability. TASK 3 Condition 1: Cerebral Palsy Causes/s: Cerebral Palsy can be caused by having injury of brain before brain development is completed. Usually brain develops within 2 years after birth, so Cerebral Palsy can be occurred during prenatal or infant period. And birth complication can also cause this condition. But many cases get this condition from unknown causes before birth. Main characteristic 1: Cerebral Palsy is characterized by motor function impairment. It causes activity limitation. Main characteristic 2: People with Cerebral Palsy exhibit cognitive and sensory impairments. Physical support: People with Cerebral Palsy suffer from hypotonic and rigidity. So physical therapy is useful to support them physically. Effective physical therapy can help them to improve their muscle. Recent studies report that intensive exercise is effective. So support worker can make a schedule for resistive exercise four times per week. Social support: People with Cerebral Palsy can be easily isolated because of their handicaps. So support workers need to reduce barriers to participation in activities of school, work and society. To participate in activities, many devices are necessary. If the client can’t walk, using wheelchair could be helpful to go watching football games and cheer a team. Cognitive support: People with Cerebral Palsy can be normal intellectually, but they have difficulty in learning because of limitation of hearing, seeing, and movement. So for supporting them cognitively, support worker needs to help their study by give them enough time to understand and express or adjust knowledge. And support worker can provide some aids to improve their speech. Source/s: Karen W. Krigger, M.D., M.ED., university of Louisville school of Medicine, Cerebral Palsy: An Overview, Kentucky Am Fam Physician. 2006 Jan 1; 73(1): 91-100, retrieved from http://www.aafp.org/afp/2006/0101/p91.html Condition 2: Prader-Willi Syndrome Causes/s: Prader-Willi Syndrome is caused by genetic abnormality. They have the chromosome number 15 without genetic information that normally people have from the father. It is thought to occur entirely by chance. Main characteristic 1: People with Prader-Willi Syndrome have severe hypotonia. So their sucking is poor in their early infancy. Main characteristic 2: Obesity is commonly caused. This is a result of an excessive appetite, a permanent feeling of hunger, and hyperphagia or overeating, and a low calorific requirement which is due to low energy expenditure levels. Physical support: People with Prader-Willi Syndrome can’t control their eating because they always feel hunger. Furthermore, they can easily become obesity that causes many complications. To prevent them from being obesity, support workers need to give exercise outside where they can’t find food easily. They need regular and continual exercise, so it is important to make a schedule with various and interesting exercise to them. Social support: They should take daily food intake under supervision. Once people between 2 and 4 years old start to overeat, supervision will assist them to minimize food and prevent them from being obesity. Parents make sure that they can easily open refrigerators and cabinets containing food to eat. It is extremely necessary for them to have a well-balanced, low-calorie diet and regular exercise and should be maintained for all of the individuals life. Cognitive support: People who have PWS usually suffer from controlling their emotions. It is helpful to use behavioral therapy which helps them with their emotions. Losing temple, stubbornness and obsessive compulsive behavior as well as obsession with food have to be coped with behavioral management programs using firm limit-setting strategies. Source: Andres Martin, M.D, 1998, Prader-Willi Syndrome, Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155:1265-1273, retrieved from http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleID=173004 Condition 3: Autism Cause/s: Autism, a kind of neurodevelopmental disorder is defined by their behavior. But it is caused from various kind of brain dysfunction that affects the ability to handle information. In many cases, there is a genetic component. Main characteristic 1: People who have autism have impairment in many areas of development. They have difficulty in reciprocal interaction and have learning disability. Main characteristic 2: People with autism have lack of social and communication skill. Their behavior is not typical, but many babies with autism have tendency to overly focus on certain object. They also have poor eye contact and lose interest in others easily. Physical support: They have difficulty with making balance, gait and delicate motor skill. To improve their muscle tone, support workers need to provide regular physical fitness besides it is also important to be provided properly when they exercise. Social support: Children with autism may have the high risk of peer rejection and social isolation. To improve social skill, it is necessary to establish the relationship with support worker. Support workers need to provide practice proper and positive answer as much more as possible in social group. That is why they can learn facial express and eye contact. Cognitive support: People with autism have cognitive impairment, so they can’t be aware of their needs and cope with their mood. It can cause anxiety. It needs for them to recognize their mood. For this reason, support workers can give enough opportunities to express and verbalize their mood and feeling for recognizing their mood. Source: National Institute of Mental Health, 2011, A Parent’s Guide to Autism Spectrum Disorder, retrieved from: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/a-parents-guide-to-autism-spectrum-disorder/parent-guide-to-autism.pdf King Solomon: A History King Solomon: A History King Solomon King Solomon was the third and the greatest king of Israel. He was the second son of David by his wife Bathsheba, and the acknowledged favourite of his father (Oussani). Solomon is mostly known for his great wisdom and just soul. His main accomplishmen, the construction of the temple of the LORD in Jerusalem, also made him well-known and honorable among his people and among other nations as well. Apart from great wisdom, God also gave Solomon discerning heart, wealth, and honour, but still, at the end, this didnt prevent him from making the mistake of following other gods. God played the major role in the kings life. Since the day Solomon was born, the LORD guided him through his righteous life; he made him a successful, wise and discerning ruler, helped govern the nation, and build the temple and the the palace in Jerusalem. The fact that Solomon asked God to give him wisdom to govern his people, not long and joyful life, great power and wealth, makes us admire the king and honour his purpose to put the prosperity of his people before his own needs. Long before Solomon grew up and became a powerful king of Israel, we, the readers of the Bible, could foresee his upcoming success. God always was with him since the day he was born, and because the LORD loved him, he sent word through Nathan the prophet to name him Jedidiah (2 Samuel 12:25). The name Jedidiah means loved by the LORD. Solomons wisdom was greater than the wisdom of all the men of the Earth (1 Kings 4:30). He used his astude and wise mind to rule over his nation and to educate people. He gave them useful knowledge about plants, animals, birds, reptiles and fish. The king became famous and honourable, not only among his people, but also among other nations. Man of all nations came to listen to Solomons wisdom, sent by all the kings of the world, who had heared of his wisdom (1 Kings 4:34). Apart from having a great wisdom, Solomon was also a just and discerning judge. The scene in which two women ask him to decide who is the real mother of the child is the most famous example in which the king uses his discerning heart to jugde people. Solomon didnt even need any evidences or the witnesses to make the right judgemen. Soon after ascending his fathers throne, Solomon bagan to build the Holy Temple (Schoenber). He was controling the whole process of building it. The temple and its construction were very important for the king. By this, he showed his gratitude towards God and also fulfiled the intention of his father David. It took Solomon seven years to build the temple. In the end he also brought up the ark of the LORDs covenant in it. During his life, Solomon composed 3,000 proverbs (Shoenberg), which are mostly related to peoples everyday life. Through centuries, his proverbs helped people telling them how to live a righteous and successful life and teaching them how to be right before God: Do not envy a violent man or choose any of his ways, for the LORD detests a perverse man but takes the upright into his confidence (Proverbs 3:31-32) Nowadays, we can still extract some useful knowledge from these proverbs and use it to make our lifes better. One of the proverbs that we can find in the book of Proverbs tells: The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge, but fools despise wisdom and discipline (Proverbs 1:7). After becoming familiar with this proverb and knowing that Solomon was wise, and that the LORD is a jealous God, the following question arises: Why did Solomon follow other gods? Only after God had punished him, Solomon understood that he did evil in the eyes of the LORD. Then, after Solomons confessions, which were not completely sincere, God showed his mercy on the king, but after his death, the LORD divided the kingdom into two, and the son of Solomon got the smallest part of it. According to the Bible, Solomon was the greatest king in the Old Testament, who ruled over the people of Israel about three thousand years ago (Maris). Thanks to his wise and discerning heart, that he got from the LORD, the king had no equals. Being a successful ruler and a just judge, Solomon taught people, had built the temple for the Name of the LORD his God in Jerusalem, and had written 3,000 proverbs (Schoenberg). Despite of his great wisdom that was given to him by God, Solomon did evil in the eyes of the LORD and followed the gods of his wifes. Still, he is remembered as a great and wise king. Wouldnt it be better if our governers would follow his example of being just and discerning towards the people? References Maris, Micki. About the Proverbs of Solomon. Proverbs of Solomon Family Discussion Guide. 11 Dec. 2009 Oussani, Gabriel. Solomon. The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 14. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. 11 Dec. 2009 . Schoenberg, Shira. Solomon. Jewish Virtual Library. 11 Dec. 2009 < ://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Solomon.html>